Organic Anion Transporters Essay -- Biology

The main location of the protein organic anion transporter 3 is in the kidney and the function of the kidney is to get toxins, usually in the form of organic anions, or even medications out of the body. In order to separate and transport these toxins through the blood to the kidney, specific proteins called organic anion transporters (OAT) exist. The sole function of these proteins is to bind to these molecules and take them to the kidney where they can be separated from the blood and excreted. The way these proteins work is that they have a highly specific active site (or binding site) which has unique properties that make it prone to attaching to various organic anions. To better understand the role of OAT 3, a specific OAT protein which is present in the choroid plexus (spinal fluid) and the kidney, an experiment was conducted in which this protein was removed from rats by replacing the DNA code for OAT 3 with a similar, but not functional code. These OAT 3 knockout rats showed an inability to transport certain organic anions including toxins, hormones, and drugs. Methods Procedures: 1. Isolation of the OAT3 Gene 2. Analysis of changes in tissues of the wild type and OAT3 type 3. Northern Analysis 4. RT-PCR 5. Methods of Measuring Transport 6. Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy 1. Isolation of OAT3 gene: The strategy used here was a deletion of exon 3. An exon is a portion of a DNA molecule that codes for part of a polypeptide, which gets expressed. So the deletion of this particular exon caused a frame-shift mutation and a premature stop codon to be brought in. This just means that the messenger RNA (mRNA) that is transcribed from the gene gets translated normally until the ribosome co... ...family will allow humans to further expand the effectiveness of drug treatment. First, if the organic anion transport system could be blocked, certain medicines then would stay in the system longer that would otherwise have been excreted. This would allow for more effective and shorter treatment. Second, not everyone has the same amount of organic anion transporters in their system, thus by genotyping a patient and discovering the amount of the transporters present in the individual, a personalized drug regiment could be devised , making it more effective for the individual. Third, by identifying the anion transported by each OAT (OAT 1-4), certain toxins could be transported out of the system much faster and prevent less damage of certain toxins to the system. By altering the amounts of the OAT family present doctors could speed up the recovery process.

Explain the Role of the First World War in the Decline and Fall of the Romanov Dynasty

Explain the role of the First World War in the decline and fall of the Romanov Dynasty The role of the first world in the decline and fall of the Romanov Dynasty has been contended debated. Russia’s lack of resources and preparation can be seen to attribute to the fall of the dynasty as lack of items such as bread and coal ked to contention amongst Russia’s people. Also contributing was Tsar Nicholas II’s lack of military experience and ability to use military force to crush the civilian protests that were occurring in Petrograd, Russia’s capital city. The generals of the military along with the Duma used the protests to their advantage to force the abdication of the Tsar and strengthen Russia’s’ war effort. However, Russia’s turbulent past of political and social turmoil also contributed to the decline and fall of the Romanov Dynasty. The lack of preparation on Russia’s behalf before the First World War began was an integral factor leading to the decline and fall of the Romanov Dynasty. For a war on a large scale, that being the First World War Russia’s lack of preparation severely crippled its efforts in the war with as many of 1 million of its soldiers departing for the eastern front without necessities such as Rifles or boots. In the circumstances when soldiers were equipped with weapons they were often stuck without the necessary ammunition to fire them, this would foreshadow the humiliating losses Russia would suffer in the months to come with battles such as Tannenburg costing the Russian army as many as 230,000 dead soldiers and many more captured by the forces of the Kaiser. Russia’s second army under the command of General Rennenkampf executed a retreat after the demise of the other half of Russian forces and whilst this was skilful 1. million men met death on the eastern front, if not from the enemy then the crippling lack of food and starvation that faced most soldiers of the Russian army. The news of these defeats did not fall on deaf ears back in the cities of Russia causing great discontent amongst the proletariat and intelligentsia alike, Russia already had a poor war records with a humiliation during the Crimean war at the hands of the Turkish and the recent Russo-Japanese war in 1905 b oth disgraceful defeats on Russia’s behalf. With news now that these losses were being bettered on the eastern front it caused a questioning of Russia’s autocracy, the Dynasty of the Romanov family. The liberal school of thought on the fall of the Romanovs greatly highlights the significance of the First World War on the fall of the autocracy and believe if the war was averted so to would be the fall of the Romanovs. Therefore it can be safely asserted that the liberal school of thought elucidates that the lack of preparation by Russia in response to the First World War contributed greatly to the eclectic nature of the Romanov Dynasty and its eventual decline and fall. The lack of military experience by Tsar Nicholas II as well as the disobedience of the Russian military is more or less of significant importance to the decline and fall of the Romanov Dynasty. From an early age Nikolay Alexandrovich Romanov was not groomed to be a traditional Tsar, his father Alexander III saw his son as a weak link to the Dynasty and unfit to rule because of his weak personality and mind, those of the liberal school of thought agree entirely with this stating â€Å"the weakness in the character of Nicholas†¦ ontributing to the fall of the Romanov Dynasty. † With little to no training in being the supreme autocrat of Russia it is a wonder that Tsar Nicholas thought it wise to personally take the role of the commader in chief with no military experience as well, for the Russian people this was a risky move seeing as how the last war Nicholas had spear-headed led to a loss of hundreds of kilometres of trans-siberian railway and the colony of Korea in the R usso-Japanese war. Thus upon the start of the First World War despite a surge of patriotism from the Russian people when the Russian Army performed consistently badly Tsar Nicholas was seen to be the cause. Already being investigated as a potential spy due to his marriage to the tsarina who hailed from Germany , the poor performance of Russia during the World War which was under Tsar Nicholas’ command is seen by the Liberal School as crippling to the intergrity and upkeep of Russias’ Autocracy and the Dynasty of the Romanov Family. Worse still was Nicholas’ leadership of Russia during the time of the war, being unable to disband civilian riots in the capital of Petrograd and by refusing offers from the Duma at first during the February/March revolution secured his abdication which was forced upon him by the military and the Duma cementing the lack of loyalty Nicholas’ cabinet had to him as a result of his poor leadership and military inexperience, which can be attributed to the decline and fall of the Romanov Dynasty. Furthermore the civilian protests in Russia as a reaction to the catalyst of the First World War were yet another reason as to the fall of the Romanov Family and their dynasty. Russias history of disgruntled peasants and proletariat provides a bleak foreshadow to the reaction the general public had towards the poor performance Russia turned in during the First World War and the lack of necessities such as food and coal that they had to fore-go due to poor preparation. It cannot be denied the crucial role that civilian riots had in the fall of the Romanov Dynasty, these riots can be traced to the 23rd of February 1917 as an English woman named Sybil Grey described the riots start as â€Å"a poor woman entered a bread shop†¦ and asked for bread. She was told there was none. On leaving the shop, seeing bread in the window she broke the window and took it. This simple act of taking bread was the turning point in civilian protests and the birth itself of the Russian Revolution, soon the streets of Petrograd were littered with protestors and the Duma refused the Tsar’s orders to disband the protests via the military, many of whom defected to the protestors to avoid being sent to the Eastern front. The food supplies in most cities were dire and the Russian economy was inflated to the point that most farmers refused to sell their wares in exchange for money. Prominent Russian industry such as the Pulitov Steelworks also closed due to a lack of finance and raw materials meaning 90,000 proletariat now had no jobs and no direction in society, which inevitably leads to protesting. Therefore it can be easily drawn that the protests that occurred with the civilians in Russia played an integral role in the decline and fall of teh Romanov Dynasty. Moreover Russia’s parliament, the Duma in conjunction with the Russian military officials many of whom were related to Tsar Nicholas himself used the First World War as a medium to force the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and attempt to govern Russia as a democracy. After the events of bloody Sunday in 1905 Tsar Nicholas II faced a dilemma, millions of Russians crying for change and challenging his power and the power of the autocracy. It was in these circumstances the ‘October Manifesto’ was issued to the people in hopes of tying down threats of insurrection amongst the people, the manifesto granted Russia a parliament that was so closely linked with the Tsar it had no purpose essentially. However, during the failures that followed Nicholas in the First World War the Duma was essentially in power in the capital city of Petrograd with the Tsar stranded at a military base in Tsarkoe Selo, finally reaching the peak of insurrection the Duma with the support of the Tsar’s trusted generals established a provisional government that attempted to repair the damage the war and Nicholas had caused. To the tsar this was an ct of insubordination and military force was demanded to shut the Duma down, this was not the case. The military had lost faith in Nicholas, fearing he was disadvantaging Russia in their efforts against germany, it was then clear what must be done; under desperation from the war and the people the Duma and the military requested Tsar Nicholas abdicate his power from the throne, in its stead would be a government running on elections in replica of England. Another role the Duma played was their facilitation in the civilian riots occurring with some Cossacks, guards supposedly loyal to the tsar assuring protestors â€Å"don’t worry we won’t shoot you† and the guard of the royal family abandoning their posts. The quintessential role then of the Duma and Military as a result of the first world war in the decline and fall of the Romanov Dynasty cannot be denied. However, when studying the decline and fall of the Romanov dynasty other schools of thought have differing opinions as to the significance of the War in the fall of the Romanovs. The revisionist school argues that the pre-existing and unresolved issues of Russia’s past greatly contributed to the decline and fall of the Romanov dynasty. Historian Sheila Fitzpatrick believes that even prior to the war Russia was in an unstable place, both socially and politically as she states â€Å"The autocracy’s situation was precarious on the eve of the First World War. Issues such as the massacre of bloody Sunday were still contemporary issues for the Tsar and the autocracy, with labels such as ‘Bloody Nicholas’ becoming household names, the activities of various revolutionary groups such as Vladimir Lenin’s Bolshevik party and the opposing Mensheviks of Leon Trotsky whilst fore-runners for change in Russian society both set a precarious scene during 20th century Russia, often trying to ignite crowds or events into protests or revolutions. These often took the form of Assassinations with targets including Prime Minister Petr Stolypin often upsetting the established order and descending society into complete chaos. It can be seen then that the revisionists make a strong argument as to why the Romanovs would have fallen even in the absence of the First World War. The contention does not rest there though, the living conditions of a vast majority of Russian society was also believed to be a contributing factor as to the decline and fall of the Romanovs, during the industrial revolution the conditions faced by the new class; ‘the proletariat’ or workers were seen to be inhumane, they were cramped into mall living areas, malnourished, exposed to dangerous work, shot at and payed incredibly poor amounts of money to ensure this cycle continued, they also made up over 90% of Russia’s population. It is easy to see then that a large amount of society exposed to these conditions for the betterment of others would eventually lead to a revolution en mass which is what revisionists, amongst other things believe would have been equally if not more significant than the First World War in the decline and fall of the Romanov Dynasty. All in all despite contention the role of the First World War in the decline and fall of the Romanov Dynasty can be seen as pivotal to some as Russia’s lack of preparation, poor leadership, riots and leaders were all influenced by the great war but is debated amongst others due to other factors such as; conditions faced by the working class, the autcracys weakened position and revolutionary groups.

Understanding White Supremacy

Historically, white supremacy has been understood as the belief that white people are superior to people of color. As such, white supremacy was the ideological driver of the European colonial projects and U.S. imperial projects: it was used to  rationalize unjust rule of people and lands, theft of land and resources, enslavement, and genocide. During these early periods and practices, white supremacy was backed by misguided scientific studies of physical differences on the basis of race and was also believed to take intellectual and cultural form. White Supremacy in US History The system of white supremacy was brought to the Americas by European colonists and took firm root in early U.S. society through the genocide, enslavement, and internal colonization of indigenous populations, and the enslavement of Africans and their descendants. The system of slavery in the U.S., the Black Codes that limited rights among newly freed blacks that were instituted following emancipation, and the Jim Crow laws that enforced segregation and also limited rights combined to make the U.S. a legalized white supremacist society through the late-1960s. During this period the Ku Klux Klan became a well-known symbol of white supremacy, as have other major historical actors and events, like the Nazis and the Jewish Holocaust, the apartheid regime of South Africa, and Neo-Nazi and white power groups today. As a result of the notoriety of these groups, events, and time periods, many people think of white supremacy as an overtly hateful and violent attitude toward people of color, which is considered a problem mostly buried in the past. But as the recent racist murder of nine Black people at Emanuel AME church has made clear, the hateful and violent breed of white supremacy is still very much a part of our present. Yet, it is important to recognize that white supremacy today is a multifaceted system that manifests in myriad ways, many not overtly hateful nor violent—in fact often quite subtle and unseen. This is the case today because U.S. society was founded, organized, and developed in a white supremacist context. White supremacy and the many forms of racism it employs is infused into our social structure, our institutions, our worldviews, beliefs, knowledge, and ways of interacting with each other. Its even encoded into some of our holidays, like Columbus Day, which celebrates a racist perpetrator of genocide. Structural Racism and White Supremacy The white supremacy of our society is evident in the fact that whites maintain a structural advantage over people of color in nearly every aspect of life. White people maintain an educational advantage, an income advantage, a wealth advantage, and a political advantage. White supremacy is also evident in the way communities of color are systematically over-policed (in terms of unjust harassment and unlawful arrest and brutalization), and under-policed (in terms of police failing to serve and protect); and in the way that experiencing racism takes a societal-wide negative toll on the life expectancy of Black people. These trends and the white supremacy they express are fueled by the false belief that society is fair and just, that success is the result of hard work alone, and an overall denial of the many privileges that whites in the U.S. have relative to others. Further, these structural trends are fostered by the white supremacy that lives within us, though we may be wholly unaware that it is there. Both conscious and subconscious white supremacist beliefs are visible in social patterns that show, for instance, that university professors give more attention to potential students who are white; that many people regardless of race believe that lighter skinned Black people are smarter than those with dark skin; and that teachers punish Black students more harshly for the same or even lesser offenses committed by white students. So while white supremacy might look and sound different than it has in centuries past, and may be experienced differently by people of color, it is very much a twenty-first-century phenomenon that must be addressed through critical self-reflection, the rejection of white privilege, and anti-racist activism. Further Reading For detailed and riveting historical accounts of how white supremacy was wielded in pursuit of economic, political, cultural, and social domination by Europeans from the 1500s on, see  The World is a Ghetto  by sociologist Howard Winant, and  Orientalism  by postcolonial theorist  Edward Said.For information on how white supremacy historically affected indigenous populations, Mexicans and Mexican Americans, as well as immigrants from Asia, see sociologist Tomà ¡s Almaguers book  Racial Fault Lines:  The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California.Sociologist Eduardo Bonilla-Silva investigates this phenomenon at length in his book  White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era